An Overview Of A Constructions Productivity Construction Essay

An Overview Of A Constructions Productivity Construction Essay Recently, construction productivity is on a long-term slide and it is recognized as industry challenge. System, people, materials, information and energy must flow effectively and efficiently to produce its objective at high productivity to complete construction at lowest possible cost with possible shortest timeframe (Picard, 2005). Productivity is critically important in construction industry. Many researchers have expressed their concern over productivity in construction industry. Defining productivity is not a simple task to everybody. Different people will give different definition and understanding. Most of them agreed that marketable output was essentially the main measure used. Increased productivity was a leading concern to all Committee stakeholders such as users, contractors, and construction labor unions and led by the owner. The construction users emphasized the need of collecting data directly relevant to productivity improvement. The Committee was concluded that the front-line construction foreman/supervisor would be a reliable source of information. These informants would be asked to provide their judgment of the greatest impediments to a productive construction project (Tucker, 2003). Definition of productivity Within these several decades, many researchers have defined the productivity term in their studies in a number of ways. The term productivity has different meanings to different people. Many individuals automatically think only of labor unions when the term productivity is mentioned. Others associate capital expenditures with the term. Each of these interpretations is only partly correct (Adrian, 1993). Many researchers have attempted to define precisely the meaning of productivity and below are some of it that referred from their studies: Oglesby et al. (1989), presented that productivity can be defined as in-place value divided by inputs . Some researchers have defined it as works-hours divided by the equivalent quantity of work. In construction, productivity normally can be understood as work quantity divided by man-hours (or work-hours) consumed to accomplish the work. Productivity = Work Quantity Man-hours According to Dolman, Parham, Zheng, (2007), productivity is a measure in order to know how much output is produced per unit of input. Diewert Lawrence, (2006) presented that productivity can be defined as the level of economic output per unit of input and also per worker. Productivity is important to the wealth and well-being of a nation and give efforts to improve productivity occur at all levels of society. According to Hwang and Liu, (2005), productivity is an effective index that can indicate output of construction work quantity versus the input of resources. Productivity of a crew is directly impacts the cost and time needed to complete a task. By analyzing and forecasting productivity, project manager can be more effective to control and predict project time and cost throughout execution up to completion. Thomas and Mathew, (1986) presented that no standardized productivity definition had been established in the construction industry. It is difficult to define a standard productivity measure because companies use their own systems which are not standardized. Association simply illustrates the productivity between an output and an input. The form has been widely used and existing in literature over the years in construction industry is; Productivity = Input/Output Prokopenko, (1987), defined the productivity as effective and efficient utilization of all resources, labor, plant and materials. According to Jugdev, et al.,(2001), productivity is a ratio between inputs and outputs. In calculating the productivity, it is important to specify the inputs and outputs that to be measured because there are many inputs such as labors, materials, equipments, tools, capital and design in construction system. Uusi-Rauva and Hannula, (1996), presented that productivity can be defined as internal efficiency of the organization or other object to be measured. A more precise definition of productivity is the following: output divide by the input that is used to generate output. Output is consists of products or services and input is consists of materials, labor, capital, energy, etc. Productivity is not only affected by the quantities of inputs and outputs but also the qualities of inputs and outputs. According to Halligan, et al., (1994), there are many ways to define productivity. In construction, it is usually taken to mean labor productivity which is units of work placed or produced per man-hour. Teicholz, (2004), stated that productivity in construction industry was measured by constant contract dollars of new construction work per hourly work hour The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS, 2009) of the U.S. Department of Labor was defines productivity into two type which are labor productivity and multifactor productivity. Labor productivity can be measures as output per hour of labor and it is used in over 40 industries including construction. Productivity can be calculated by dividing the quantity of work completed (Quantity) by number of labor hours used to complete the work (Man Hours). A productivity value represents performance of an operation with respect to time and cost, where activity duration and activity cost is directly affected by productivity. Duration (Hours) = Quantity of Works (Quantity / Man Hours) = Quantity of Works Productivity The formula above indicates how critical the reliability of the productivity factors in estimation time. Measurement of productivity There is controversy surrounding productivity that rooted in the differences in data collection. It is due to incorrect in assuming productivity measured uniformly and that all published productivity values have the same basis (Whiteside, 2006) Overall conception of productivity is difficult to express or to measure. It is sometimes expressed either in terms of output from labor or from services or from capital invested. These parts of expressions often do not give an accurate picture of the overall position. Although, there are measurements of some or all of the inputs and outputs of the industry but they still failed to combine these measurements into any satisfactory measure of efficiency. In fact, the ratio is easy to compute if the unit uses a single input to produce a single output (Choy, 2008). According to Whiteside, (2006), production is average direct labor hours to install a unit material. He also stressed that in perfect world, perfect productivity (1.0) will be accomplished in 40-hour work week, with everyone taking all of their holidays and vacation days planned. It is regarding to all the engineering drawings must be 100% complete, there would be no delays of any kind, everyone would work safely, everything would fit perfectly at the first time, the weather would be 70 degrees Fahrenheit and there would be no litigation at the end of the project. But, we do not live in perfect world and true productivity is often poorly understood. The first challenge in understanding productivity is lacking of common terms. The definition of hours identified as direct labor should be consistent. Second is too much focus in determining productivity which is incorrectly placed on the individual worker. Productivity is something to do with the worker because many workers work at the s ame rates. The main thing should be focused in productivity measurement is proper or complete planning. It is because like-out-sequence work will contribute to lower productivity due to the rework hours required to complete the original task. The final challenge is how to make productivity comparison when the data used in productivity studies before have the same basis. Productivity is not based on wage rates or cost data alone and it is improper to combine wage rate, hours and material quantities to make productivity comparison. According to Hwang and Liu, (2009), construction productivity studies have centered on the identification of factors that influence productivity and quantification of the impact of such factor on productivity. As a result, there were various qualitative and quantitative factors have been discovered and various methods for productivity have been presented. Majority of those methods are based on relationships between productivity and factors. Based on Thomas and Yiakoumis (1987), they stated that theory underlying the factor model is the work of crew is affected by a number of factors. If the cumulative effect of these disturbances can be mathematically represented, then the expected actual productivity can be estimate. But, it is not always feasible to quantify the impact of various factors and represent the relationships mathematically. Another limitation is the value of many related factors in future is not available and thus, they have to be estimated. In fact, some of the factors can be correlated with others which the correlation may be higher or lower under different situations. There is several research efforts have been devoted to developing models. The models that being used in the construction industry are such as below: According to Sonmez and Rowings, (1998); Portas and AbouRizk, (1997), recommended Neutral Network (NN) techniques which have been used to develop method of productivity prediction. Everett and Farghal, (1994), recommended learning curves that for various activities. Abdelhamid and Everett, (1999), have applied time series analysis to evaluate hoisting performance comparing the CRANIUM technology with the conventional technique. According to Brockwell and Davis, (2002), ARMA (autoregressive moving average) models are used to model time-lagged relationship of self-correlated observations within a single series. Cumulative Average and Simple Moving Average that wisely used to model a single time series Exponential Smoothing produce forecasts of weighted value of past observation with exponentially decreasing weights (NIST, 2006). Although there are numbers of publications exist on construction productivity, there is no agreed upon definition of work activities nor a standard productivity measurement system. Most of researchers have concluded that it is difficult to obtain a standard method to measure construction labor productivity because of project complexity and unique characteristics of the construction projects (Oglesby et al. 1989). The uniqueness and non repetitive of operation in construction projects make it is difficult to develop a standard productivity definition and measure (Sweis, 2000). Current measurement of productivity in construction industry Our labor productivity experts specialize in labor productivity analysis and may utilize the following industry-recognized methodologies, where appropriate: Measured Mile Analysis Work Sampling Comparable Work Study General and Specialty Industry Studies (Mechanical Contractors Association of America [MCAA],  Construction Industry Institute [CII], Business Roundtable, etc.) Total Cost Method Modified Total Cost Method Time and Motion Studies   The selection of a particular productivity analysis methodology is depends on the project facts, the nature of the events being analyzed, the nature and extent of available labor data and may vary from project to project. Each of the above-referenced productivity analysis methodologies has inherent its own advantages and disadvantages. Interface Consulting has extensive experience handling construction labor productivity claims and construction claims consultants are skilled at tailoring productivity analysis approach to suit a projects needs and constraints (ICII, 2009). Factors influence productivity in construction According to Tucker, (2003), he presented the most factors that can affect the construction productivity especially on site as below: Design: specifications, drawings, documents have to be improved Field support for timely responses; have architect/engineer on site with field competency Coordinate Design/Review Timely RFIs/RFPs (Request For Informations/Request For Proposals) Construction/Project management competency He also suggested that productivity improvement should be done based on this area: Constructability of the design documents with input of major contractors on schedule quality and realism Coordination among major contractors Pre-project planning Communication and teamwork between owners, design professionals, contractors and labor Improvement of the construction management process. Parisi, (2008) presented that potential factors influence the construction productivity are many, including out-of-sequence work; skilled labor shortages; worker crowding/congested work areas; interference of trades; owner interference; design problems and defects; contractors inadequate management/supervision; failure to properly staff the project; overtime; and acceleration. Lim et al (1995) studied factors affecting productivity in the construction industry in Singapore. Their findings indicated that the most important problems affecting productivity were: difficulty with recruitment of supervisors; difficulty with recruitment of workers; high rate of labour turnover; absenteeism from the work site; and communication problems with foreign workers. Olomolaiye et al (1996) studied factors affecting productivity of craftsmen in Indonesia, with their findings indicating craftsmen in Indonesia spent 75 % of their time working productively. Five specific productivity problems were identified: ie lack of materials; rework; absenteeism; lack of equipment; and tools. Kane et al (cited in Herbsman et al, 1990) classified factors affecting construction productivity into two main groups: technological factors and administrative factors. The technological factors encompass those related mostly to the design of the project; the administrative group factors relate to the management and construction of the project. Technological factors comprise sub-groups such as design factors, material factors and location factors. Administrative factors comprise sub-groups, such as construction methods and procedural factors, equipment factors, labour factors, and social factors. Heizer and Render (1990) classified factors influencing site productivity into 3 groups: labour characteristic factors; project work conditions factors; and nonproductive activities. Olomolaiye et al (1998) stated that factors affecting construction productivity are rarely constant, and may vary from country to country, from project to project, and even within the same project, depending on circumstances. They classified factors influencing construction productivity into 2 categories: external and internal, representing those outside the control of the firm s management, and those originating within the firm.. External factors included the nature of the industry, construction client knowledge of construction procedure, weather, and level of economic development. Internal factors included management, technology, labour, and labour unions. Enshassi et al 2006, Enshassi et al 2007, and Al Haddad 2007 stated that among the problems which the Palestinian construction industry is facing are material supply schedules and project scheduling techniques. Although a number of training courses were conducted to local contractors, these training efforts did not focus enough on the abilities to use project scheduling techniques such as Microsoft project and Primavera. Therefore training effort should also be tailored to improve methods of studying productivity and ways of productivity improvement on construction sites. The important productivity rate in project scheduling The duration of construction project is a key factor to consider before starting a new project which is it can be determine project success of failure. Despite the uncertainty and risk level is very high in construction industry, current construction planning which is more relies on traditional deterministic scheduling method is still not clearly ascertain the level of uncertainty involved in the project. Subsequently, it can prolong a projects duration and cannot be completed within the allocation time of the project (Lee, et al., 2009). Construction projects are subjected to changes which it require constant performance monitoring and follow-up schedule updates. Project manager must take proactive attitude to analyze project data and to predict potential problems and delay in order to make timely decisions and to reduce the negative impact on cost and schedule (Hwang and Liu, 2005). Planning in construction is a complex and iterative process. A plan usually is prepared based on the estimates by the participants actual commitment. Therefore, construction productivity plan plays a significant role in the process. Based on Parisi, (2008), in estimating labor, there are several key factors that should be considered: Productivity of its field forces Union labor agreements and requirements Past experience with the owner, designer, and construction manager Labor availability Specialty trades Therefore, if the actual construction work deviates from the anticipated plan, once the contract is signed and the project is underway, several situations may result as below: The job may take more time because the progress is not being made at the rate projected in the original baseline schedule and thus, project completion must be extended. (In such cases, acceleration of the remaining activities may be implemented to recover time) More hours of labor may be required to install the work items because materials are not being installed by the contractors workforce at the productivity rates (the anticipated quantities of material to be installed per hour) same as estimated in the original bid. An overrun of both time and labor may occur. In order to succeed, the companies must make a phase affirmative action into the total management of productivity through a formalized, documented process such as depicted in Figure 2.0. The process should be started with historical productivity analysis. The knowledge that gained from this processes should then be utilized to forecast and manage future productivity. The supervisor that involved in this process must implement and monitor the predetermined productivity values. Only then the companies can be more competitive and successful in todays global market Figure 2.0: A model to manage construction productivity Construction industry seemed as low sector when there is low technology and low skilled employments occur. According to Saad, (2002), in order to raise level of construction productivity, it is recommended that the projects should have the following features: High degree of standardization Design is preferred to use pre-fabricated units or pre-assemble forming system Building system should be easy and simple to construct and repetitive Well managed construction methods with details planning and specification High level of mechanized methods and skilled workers Roof works Roof is a basic human need is for shelter, which for most of us consists of a few walls and a roof over our heads. Roofs come in many shapes and sizes. One of the main reasons for having a roof is to keep out rainwater and snow. The selection of roof is based on the following characteristics: Stability Protection from the sun, weather, wind and rain Durablity Heat resistance Brightness and ventilation Beauty Construction of roof must be strong and able to support the load and stressed that going to happen. The load that is attributable to roof, firstly is dead load which is the weight of the roof trusses, roof covering; secondly is live load which is consists of tools, equipment, workers, rain water and lastly is wind load. Wind is a major stress to the roof which is difficult to forecast accurately. Roof stability is depends on the support such as roof trusses, column, walls, beams and foundation of the building. Design of roof also takes into account the respective functions of the building. Building for residential and office should have a comfortable situation in terms of condition, light, air and dam parts sounds. Industrial buildings and warehouses may require heat insulation on the roof to maintain the same conditioning in buildings. Traffic in the building to allow use of the pillars supporting the roof of the short-range distance. Roof for theater and stadium, must be supported by long span of roof trusses and the support in the middle will distrupt the view and noise and sound effect protection from the audience. Productivity work to be consider in roof works The productivity works to be considered in this study as below: Installation of roof trusses (cold form) Installation of insulation Installation of roof covering (concrete roof tiles and metal decking) No. of workers in group Daily Productivity (m2) METHOD PRODUCTIVITY OF ONE WORKING DAY Handling Half Mechanized Full Mechanized Summary From the literature review of the productivity in construction is important especially to provide accurate duration of task in building project scheduling. Rerefences: Dolman, B., Parham, D., Zheng, S. (2007), Can Australia match US productivity performance?, Retrieved May 7, 2007, from http://www.pc.gov.au/commission/work/productivity/publications/reports.html. Diewert, W. E. and Lawrence, D. (2006), Measuring the contributions of productivity and terms of trade to Australias economic welfare, Retrieved May 7, 2007, from http://www.pc.gov.au/commission/work/productivity/publications/reports.html. Oglesby, C.H., Parker, H.W. and Howell, G.A., (1989), Construction productivity improvements, McGraw Hill, New York Adrian, J.J. (1993), Construction Estimating: An accounting and productivity approach 4th Edition, 1993 Hwang, S. and Liu, L.Y. (2005), Proactive project control using productivity data and time series analysis, Computing in Civil Engineering 2005 Thomas, H.R. and Mathew, C.T., (1986), An analysis of the methods for measuring construction productivity, SD 13, Construction Industry Institute, The University of Texas. Whiteside, J.D., (2006), Construction Productivity, AACE International Transaction, 2006 Picard, (2005), Construction productivity qualifications, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA Prokopenko, J.,(1987), Productivity management, Geneva International Labor Office. Jugdev, K., Thomas, J. and Delisle, C., (2001), Rethinking project management old truths and new insight, International Project Management Journal, 7(1), pp. 36-43 Uusi-Rauva, E. and Hannula, M., (1996), Measurement A tool for productivity Improvement, 9th International Working Seminar on Production Economics, Innsbruck, pp. 13-29 Halligan, D.W., Demsetz, L.A., Brown, J.D. and Pace, C.B., (1994), Action-response model and loss of productivity in construction, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 120 No. 1, March 1994 Teicholz, P., (2004), Labor productivity declines in the construction industry: Causes and remedies, AECbytes Viewpoint #4, April 14 2004. Tucker, W.W., (2003), Construction Productivity Study Summary, Eastern Michigan University, 2003. Choy, C.F., (2008), Productive efficiency of Malaysian construction sector, Built-Environment Department, Faculty of Engineering and Science, University Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia. Lee, H.S., Shin, J.W., Park, M. and Ryu, H.G, (2009), Probabilistic duration estimation model for high-rise structural work, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, December, 2009 Hwang, S. and Liu, L.Y. (2009), Predicting short term productivity I: Contemporaneous time series and forecasting Methodologies, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, December, 2009 Sonmez, R. and Rowing, J.E., (1998), Construction labor productivity modeling with neutral network, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, December, 124(6), 498-504 Portas, J. and AbouRizk, S. (1997), Neutral network model estimating construction productivity, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 123(4), 399-410 Everett, J.G. and Fargahl, S. (1994), Learning curve predictors for construction field operations, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 120(3), 603-614 Abdelhamid, T.S. and Everett, J.G., (1999), Time series analysis for construction productivity experiments, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 125(2), 87-95 NIST, (2006), Engineer statistic handbook Oglesby, C.H., Parker, H.W., and Howell, G.A., (1989), Productivity improvement in construction, McGraw-Hill, New York. Sweis, G.J., (2000), Impact of conversion technology on productivity in masonry construction, PhD dissertation, Northwestern University, Evanston, III. Interface Consulting International, Inc.(ICII), 2009 Parisi, R.F., (2008), When the best-laid plans go astray A primer on labor productivity, Capital Project Management, Inc. Saad, D.A, (2002), Standard labor productivity of reinforced concrete building structures and factor affecting on it, Thesis presented to university of Technology, Iraq FACTORS AFFECTING LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY IN BUILDING PROJECTS IN THE GAZA STRIP Adnan Enshassi1, Sherif Mohamed2, Ziad Abu Mustafa1 and Peter Eduard Mayer3

Nonverbal Communication Essay -- Functions of Communication

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Found information states that â€Å"nonverbal communication is the process of transporting messages through behaviors, physical characteristics and objects†. Its how and what we use in order to express our feelings and say things. Using symbols is a way of using nonverbal communication. Also nonverbal communication is the way we use body language and gestures too. Nonverbal communication is often used unconsciously. When using the certain communication it can be misinterpreted also. There are many different categories of nonverbal communication. They are the following: Aesthetics, Artifacts, Chronemics, Haptics, Kinesics, Paralanguage, Physical Appearance, Proxemics, and Oculesics.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Aesthetics is the study of nature, beauty and taste. Found information states â€Å"that Aesthetics refer to environmental factors and how they are manipulated to influence our feelings and emotions†. When referring to environmental factors it was including colors, lighting, spatial arrangement, and sounds. Found information also states that we â€Å"manipulate environmental factors to affect mood by controlling the setting†. For example, you may change the lighting in the room to a dim to give a romantic mood for someone. Aesthetics is used in many different ways.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Artifacts are things we use to express us individually. It’s our physical appearance. Meaning the clothes we wear. Also, the objects we wear too. These things are used to describe/ tell who we are. For example, uniforms are art...

Mobile Phones In Schools

Mobile Phones in Schools Recently read Frances Child's news article and personally I couldn't be any more outraged than am now, with her choice of words. Yes she's identified an issue with today's generation, but the way in which she puts this across is exaggerating the truth. Find it hard to believe how such a poorly written article managed to get published in this day and age, without being rectified. One statement which really jumped out at me, as being bias is â€Å"Very few teachers, especially female teachers, want to physically grapple a student, to confiscate their mobile phones†.This statement couldn't be much further than the truth! In my school, if a pupil is caught on their mobile phone, the teacher will simply ask for their phone and nine times out of ten they'll hand it over without hesitation. On the rare occasion of them refusing to hand it over the teacher would email SALT, and the problem is resolved in a matter Of minutes. I noticed that all of the examples which she used in her article are very rare occurrences. Personally I have never experienced such horrific reactions to a teacher wanting to take someone's phone.Of course they do append, but they're very uncommon. There's always some people who just love to cause havoc for attention in every school, whether its bunking lessons, play fighting, or in this case refusing to hand over their mobile phones. However Child's suggests the majority of students are belligerent which is not the case. Child's opens her article with the following statement, â€Å"Mobile phones are a poison in our schools but don't blame the teachers – Blame the parents! I literally cannot believe how such a bias statement can be used in this day and age. Teachers are not entirely to blame, but some do not help he cause, by not following the basic protocol of confiscating phones at first sight. As well as this teachers are responsible for enforcing the rules and the students are expected to follow them. Th en again parents can be seen to be partly to blame; this is because they're buying their son/daughters smart (addictive) phones. I agree some parents may not be supportive of the school but they aren't solely to blame.I personally believe that students are most at blame, at 1 1-18 years old they're more than old enough to be able to decide when and where to use their phones. â€Å"Porn is gloated over in class with little tempt to disguise what is happening. Sometimes a phone is openly passed around. It's unpleasant and embarrassing. † Frances Child's claiming that porn is constantly being watched during class has shocked me! In my five years at secondary school have not once witnessed such explicit material being shared among students.Although some schools may be different, what gives her the right to assume all students are as bad as each other? Really could go on all day, mentioning all of the reasons why this article is a disgrace, however I'm certain this is more than en ough evidence to express to you my utter most disgust at this article. My solution to this problem Of mobile phones in the classroom is to make punishments stricter than they are now. As well as confiscation, schools could introduce more physical punishments such as litter picking etc†¦Parents should be informed of this problem also, so they can do their bit to help resolve it. Banning mobiles all together just creates other problems, how will teenagers contact home in an emergency? Clearly Frances Child's hasn't thought of that†¦ Writing to Inform or Argue Some people love school, yet others hate every single second of it. Either way, they have absolutely no say in whether they go to school, or stay at home playing computer games. So at the end of the day, why not just let it be and get some Gases out of the whole process?Don't get me wrong, some people try their very hardest throughout their time at school, but then there are the troublemakers†¦ Most badly behaved s tudents end up with a poor set of grades, which means that they'll struggle to find a decent, well paid job. A recent survey found out that 83% of people who have been suspended or excluded from school end up with either no job or a poorly paid job when hey turn eighteen, and even more concerning is that 77% of those people surveyed regret misbehaving in school. What a waste of over ten years Of your life!All of those lessons wasted messing about all for attention, or even just to be considered ‘cool'. It's a well known fact that a lot of out of work youths end up in gangs. Not only is this one of the easiest ways to get on the wrong side of the law, it can also lead to serious injury or even death before their early twenties. However if they weren't disruptive at school they'd have a decent job, and would not even be in a gang in the first place. A lot of people say, ‘What is the point in trying hard when I know I cannot achieve high grades? I find this to be a very poo r excuse as most modern day jobs in the tertiary employment sector don't require high grades, just a good work ethic and attitude towards the workplace. It's only really the top end jobs that require a high amount of intelligence in order to fulfill their specification/ quota. One thing that really annoys me about badly behaved students is how they look down on clever students in such a way that they try their utmost best to try and intimidate them. They go around in their groups approaching he clever pupils, and often saying something on the lines of ‘You're a Geek. Ores this as jealousy towards the high grades in which the clever students are achieving. Before I started writing this article, I spent a bit of time researching how the poor behavior of certain students reflects on those who want/like to learn.

How to Help Your 4th Grader Write a Biography

How to Help Your 4th Grader Write a Biography Assignments can differ from one teacher to another, but most fourth-grade biography papers will involve a specific format. If you dont have detailed instructions from their teacher, you can follow these instructions to help your child develop a great paper. Every paper should have the following sections: Cover pageAn  introductory paragraphThree body paragraphsA summary paragraph Cover Page The cover page gives the reader information about your child, their teacher, and the subject of your childs paper. It also makes the work look more polished. The cover page should include the following information: The title of your childs paperYour childs nameThe name of your childs teacher and their schoolTodays date Introductory Paragraph The introductory paragraph is where your child introduces his topic. It should contain a  strong first sentence that gives the reader a clear idea of what the paper is about. If your child is writing a report about Abraham Lincoln, the opening sentence may look something like this: Abraham Lincoln once described himself as an ordinary man with an extraordinary story. The introductory sentence should be followed by a few sentences that give a little more information about the  topic and lead up to your childs big claim, or thesis statement. A thesis statement is not merely a statement of fact. Rather, it is a specific claim that will be argued and defended later in the paper. The thesis statement also serves as a roadmap, giving the reader an idea of what is coming next. Body Paragraphs The body paragraphs of the biography are where your child goes into detail about their research. Each body paragraph should be about one main idea. In a biography of Abraham Lincoln, your child might write one paragraph about Lincolns childhood and another about his time as president. Each body paragraph should contain a topic sentence, support sentences, and a transition sentence. A topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. Support sentences are where your child goes into detail, adding more information that supports the topic sentence. At the end of each body  paragraph should be a transition sentence, which links the ideas from one paragraph to another. Transition sentences help guide the reader and keep the writing flowing smoothly. Sample Body Paragraph A  body paragraph may look something like this: (Topic sentence) Abraham Lincoln struggled to keep the country together when some people wanted to see it split apart. The Civil War broke out after many American states wanted to start a new country. Abraham Lincoln showed leadership skills when he led the Union to victory and kept the country from splitting in two. (Transition) His role in the Civil War kept the country together, but led to many threats to his own safety.(Next topic sentence) Lincoln did not back down under the many threats he received. . . . Summary or Conclusion Paragraph A strong conclusion restates your childs  argument and sums up everything they have written. It should also include a few sentences that repeat the points your child made in each body paragraph. In the end, your child should include a final sentence that sums up the whole argument. Although they contain some of the same information, the  introduction and the conclusion should not be the same. The conclusion should build on what your child has written in their body paragraphs and wrap things up for the reader. Sample Summary Paragraph The summary (or conclusion) should look something like this: Although many people in the country did not like Abraham Lincoln at the time, he was a great leader for our country. He kept the United States together when it was in danger of falling apart. He also stood brave in the face of danger and led the way to equal rights for all people. Abraham Lincoln is one of the most outstanding leaders in American history. Bibliography Your childs teacher may require a bibliography at the end of the students paper. The bibliography is simply a list of books or articles that your child used for his research. The sources should be listed in a precise format  and in alphabetical order.

Coordinate Geometry and Points on SAT Math Complete Guide

Coordinate Geometry and Points on SAT Math Complete Guide SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Coordinate geometry is one of the heavy-hitter topics on the SAT, and you'll need to be able to maneuver your way through its many facets in order to take on the variety of questions you'll see on the test. Luckily, though, coordinate geometry is not difficult to visualize or wrap your head around once you know the basics. And we are here to show you how. There will usually be two questions on any given SAT that involve points alone, and another 2-3 questions that will involve lines and slopes and/or rotations, reflections, or translations. This makes up a significant portion of your SAT math section, so it is a good idea to understand the ins and outs of coordinate geometry before you tackle the test. This will be your complete guide to points and the building blocks for coordinate geometry- how to find and manipulate points, distances, and midpoints, as well as strategies for solving these types of questions on test day. What is Coordinate Geometry? Geometry always takes place on a plane, which is a flat surface that goes on infinitely in all directions. The coordinate plane refers to a plane that has scales of measurement along the $x$- and $y$-axes. Coordinate geometry is the geometry that takes place in the coordinate plane. Coordinate Scales The $\bi x$-axis is the scale that measures horizontal distance along the coordinate plane. The $\bi y$-axis is the scale that measures vertical distance along the coordinate plane. The intersection of the two planes is called the origin. We can find any point along the infinite span of the plane by using its position with regard to the $x$- and $y$-axes and to the origin. We mark this location with coordinates, written as $(x, y)$. The $x$ value tells us how far along (and in which direction) our point is along the $x$-axis. The $y$ value tells us how far along (and in which direction) our point is along the $y$-axis. For instance, This point is 7 units to the right of the origin and 4 units above the origin. This means that our point is located at coordinates $(7, 4)$. Anywhere to the right of the origin will have a positive $\bi x$ value. Anywhere left of the origin will have a negative $\bi x$ value. Anywhere vertically above the origin will have a positive $\bi y$ value. Anywhere vertically below the origin will have a negative $\bi y$ value. By breaking the coordinate plane up into four quadrants, we can see that any point will have certain properties in terms of its positivity or negativity, depending on where it is located. Distances and Midpoints When given two coordinate points, you can find both the distance between them as well as the midpoint between the two original points. We can find these values by using formulas or by using other geometry techniques. Let's look at each option. No distance is too much for a genius with a plan. Or a genius who is hungry. Either way. Image: Gwendal Uguen/Flickr Distance Formula $√{(x_2−x_1)^2+(y_2−y_1)^2}$ There are two options for finding the distance between two points- using the distance formula, or using the Pythagorean Theorem. Let's look at both. Solving Method 1: Distance Formula If you prefer to use formulas when you take standardized tests, then go ahead and memorize the distance formula above. You will NOT be provided the distance formula on the test, so, if you choose this route, make sure you can memorize the formula accurately and call upon it as needed. (Remember- a formula you remember incorrectly is worse than not knowing a formula at all!) Let us say we have two points, $(7, -2)$ and $(-5, 3)$, and we must find the distance between the two. If we simply plug our values into our distance formula, we get: $√{(x_2−x_1)^2+(y_2−y_1)^2}$ $√{(−5−7)^2+(3−(−2))^2}$ $√{(−12)^2+(5)^2}$ $√{144+25}$ $√{169}$ $13$ The distance between our two points is 13. Solving Method 2: Pythagorean Theorem $a^2+b^2=c^2$ Alternatively, we can always find the distance between two points by using the Pythagorean Theorem. This way takes slightly longer, but doesn't require us to expend energy memorizing extra formulas and carries less risk of us remembering the formula wrong. Remember that you are given the Pythagorean Theorem on every SAT math section, so you never have to fear mis-remembering it. It is also a formula that you've likely had to use much more often than most other formulas, so odds are that it's familiar to you. Simply turn the coordinate points and the distance between them into a right triangle, with the distance acting as a hypotenuse. From the coordinates, we can find the lengths of the legs of the triangle and use the Pythagorean Theorem to find our distance. For example, let us use the same coordinates from earlier to find the distance between them using this method instead. Find the distance between the points $(7, -2)$ and $(-5, 3)$ First, start by mapping out your coordinates. Next, make the legs of your right triangles. If we count the points along our plane, we can see that we have leg lengths of 12 and 5. Now we can plug these numbers in and use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the final piece of our triangle, the distance between our two points. $a^2+b^2=c^2$ $12^2+5^2=c^2$ $144+25=c^2$ $169=c^2$ $c=13$ The distance between our two points is, once again, 13. [Special Note: If you are familiar with your triangle shortcuts, you may have noticed that this triangle was what we call a 5-12-13 triangle. Because it is one of the regular right triangles, you technically don't even need the Pythagorean Theorem to know that the hypotenuse will be 13 if the two legs are 5 and 12. This is a shortcut that can be useful to know, but is NOT necessary to know, as you can see.] Midpoint Formula $$({x_1+x_2}/2, {y_1+y_2}/2)$$ In addition to finding the distance between two points, we can also find the midpoint between two coordinate points. Because this will be another point on the plane, it will have its own set of coordinates. If you look at the formula, you can see that the midpoint is the average of each of the values of a particular axis. So the midpoint will always be the average of the $x$ values and the average of the $y$ values, written as a coordinate point. For example, let us take the same points we used for our distance formula, $(7, -2)$ and $(-5, 3)$. If we take the average of our $x$ values, we get: $${7+(-5)}/2$$ $$2/2$$ $$1$$ And if we take the average of our $y$ values, we get: $${−2+3}/2$$ $$1/2$$ $$1/2$$ The midpoint of the line will be at coordinates $(1, 1/2)$. If we look at our picture from earlier, we can see that this is true. It is difficult to find the midpoint of a line without use of the formula, but by thinking of it as finding the average of each axis value may make it easier to visualize and remember, rather than thinking of it in terms of a "formula." Now, just measure the midpoint of an endless stretch of road- no problem. Typical Point Questions Point questions on the SAT will generally fall into one of three categories- questions about how the coordinate plane works, counting questions, and midpoint or distance questions. Let's look at each type. Coordinate Questions Questions about the coordinate plane test how well you understand exactly how the coordinate plane works, as well as how to manipulate points and lines within it. In the $xy$-coordinate plane, how many points are a distance of 4 units from the origin? A. OneB. TwoC. FourD. More than four For a question like this, it may be tempting to answer C, four. After all, there will be four distinct points 4 units from the origin, two on the $x$-axis (one right and one left), and two on the $y$-axis (one up and one down). But answering this way would disregard the realities of circles. Imagine that we have circle with a midpoint at the origin whose circumference touches each of the points 4 units from the origin. Now, if we remember our circle definitions, we know that all straight lines drawn from the center of the circle to the circumference will all be equal. We also know that there are infinite such lines. This means that there will be infinitely many point that are 4 units from the origin. These points may have "weird" coordinates (as in non-integer values), but they will be points 4 units from the origin all the same. Our final answer is D, More than 4. Counting Questions Counting questions are exactly what they sound like- you will be given a diagram of the coordinate plane (or, rarely, you must create your own) and then you will be asked to count distances from specific point to specific point. On occasion, you may also be asked to count seemingly "odd" measurements, like the values of your $x$ and $y$ coordinates. For instance, For this question, you must first understand what absolute values mean. From there, it is a simple matter of counting the x and y values from their coordinate points. For a question like this, the most efficient path is to work from our answer choices. Since our answer choices are NOT in order of "greatest to least," it will not help us to start with the middle answer choice and work our way from there, as we would normally do when plugging in answers. Knowing that, let us simply work in order from first to last, until we find our right answer. Point A is at coordinates $(-3, -3)$. So let us find the sum of their absolute values. $|x|+|y|$ $|−3|+|−3|$ $3+3$ 6 Since we are looking for the value 5, this answer is too large. We can eliminate answer choice A. Point B is at coordinates $(-4, 1)$ $|x|+|y|$ $|−4|+|1|$ $4+1$ 5 Success! We have found the answer choice that gives us coordinates whose absolute values add up to 5. Because there will only ever be one correct answer on any SAT question, we can stop here. Our final answer is B. Midpoint and Distance Questions Midpoint and distance questions will be fairly straightforward and ask you for exactly that- the distance or the midpoint between two points. You may have to find distances or midpoints from a scenario question (a hypothetical situation or a story) or simply from a straightforward math question (e.g., "What is the distance from points $(4, 5)$ and $(8, -2)$?"). Let's look at an example of a scenario question, Rosa and Marco met up for dinner and then drove home separately from the restaurant. To get home from the restaurant, Rosa drove north 6 miles and Marco drove west 8 miles. How far apart do Rosa and Marco live? A. 8 milesB. 10 milesC. 12 milesD. 14 miles First, let us make a quick sketch of our scenario. Now, because this is a distance question, we have the option of using either our distance formula or using the Pythagorean theorem. Since we have already begun by drawing out our diagram, let us continue on this path and use the Pythagorean theorem. Now, we can see that we have made a right triangle from the legs of distance we have already. Rosa drove 6 miles north and Marco drove 8 miles west, which means that the legs of our triangle will be 6 and 8. Now we can find the hypotenuse by using the Pythagorean theorem. $6^2+8^2=c^2$ $36+64=c^2$ $100=c^2$ c=√{100}$ $c=10$ [Note: if you remember your shortcuts for right triangles, you could have saved yourself some time and simply known that our distance/hypotenuse was 10. Why? Because a right triangle with legs of 6 and 8 is a 3-4-5 triangle multiplied by 2. So the hypotenuse would be $5*2=10$.] The distance between Marco's house and Rosa's house is 10 miles. Our final answer is B, 10 miles. "The worst distance between two people is misunderstanding"- Unknown. Or, you know, 10 miles. Strategies for Solving Point Questions Though point questions can come in a variety of forms, there are a few strategies you can follow to help master them. #1: Always Write Down Given Information Though it may be tempting to work through questions in your head, it is easy to make mistakes with your point questions if you do not write down your givens. This is especially the case when working with negatives or with absolute values. In addition, most of the time you are given a diagram with marked points on the coordinate plane, you will not be given coordinates. This is because the test makers feel it would be too simple a problem to solve had you been given coordinates (take, for example, the question involving absolute values from earlier). So take a moment to write down your coordinates and any other given information in order to keep it straight in your head. #2: Draw It Out In addition to writing down your given information, draw pictures of your scenarios. Make your own pictures if you are given none, draw on top of them if you are given diagrams. Never underestimate the value of marked information or a sketch- even a rough approximation can help you keep track of more information than you can (or should try to) in your head. Time and energy are two precious resourses at your disposal when taking the SAT and it takes little of each to make a rough sketch, but can cost you both to keep all your information in your head. #3: Decide Now Whether or Not to Use Formulas If you feel more comfortable using formulas than using the slightly more drawn-out techniques, then decide now to memorize your formulas. Remember that memorizing a formula wrong is worse than not remembering it at all, so make sure that you memorize and practice your formula knowledge between now and test day to lock it in your head. If, however, you are someone who prefers to dedicate your study efforts elsewhere (or you simply feel that you won't remember the formula correctly on the day of the test), then go ahead and forget them. Use the Pythagorean theorem instead of memorizing the distance formula and wash your hands of memorization altogether. There are multiple ways to solve most SAT math problems, so your choices should best match your own personal strengths and weaknesses Image: ljphillips34/Flickr Test Your Knowledge Now, let's test your point knowledge on some more real SAT math questions. 1. What is the midpoint of the line that begins at coordinates $(-3, 2)$ and ends at $(5, -10)$? A. (6, -4)B. (4, -1)C. (1, 4)D. (-1, -6)E. (1, -4) 2. 3. (Refer to information in question 2) 4. (Refer to information in question 2) Answers: E, D, A, B Answer Explanations: 1. To find the midpoint of the line connecting two points, we must take the average of each of the values along a particular axis. First, as always, it is a good idea to take a moment to map out the coordinates of our given points. This will help us keep track of our information, especially considering there are negatives involved. First, let us take the average of our two $x$-values. ${-3+5}/2$ $2/2$ 1 Now, let us take the average of our two $y$-values. ${2+(-10)}/2$ $-8/2$ $−4$ The midpoint of our line will be at coordinates $(1, -4)$ We can see that this is likely the correct answer, as it neatly fits into our diagram. Our final answer is E, $(1, -4)$. 2. Here, we have a counting question. We are not being asked to find the linear distance between two points, F and W, but to find them along a grid. So let us draw the various pathways from F to W. As you can see, the shortest paths from F to W are all 3 3$1/2$ units long, which makes 3$1/2$ the m-distance. Our final answer is D, 3$1/2$ 3. Again, we have what amounts to another counting question. This is also a definite case of when it is a good idea to draw pictures so that we do not repeat potential $m$-distance routes from F to Z. So let us find our routes. First, start by finding one of the most direct paths, which in this case is a distance of 4 units. Next, trace all the paths that follow the lines from F to Z. If any of our new paths span less than 4 units, it will of course become our new m-distance, but for now we are working under the assumption that the $m$-distance is 4. All of our paths travel a distance of 4 units, making this our m-distance. If you were careful to keep track of all your paths and not count any of them more than once, then you will see that there are 6 routes from F to Z that will measure the minimum distance. Our final answer is A, six. 4. Now, this question may seem tricky because it looks, at first glance, almost exactly like one of our questions from earlier in the guide, which asked us, "How many points are 4 units from the origin?" In that case, the answer was "infinitely many," because all the points 4 units from the origin formed a circle, and there are always infinite points on a circle. In this case, we are being asked to find all the points ${m-3}$-distance from a particular point. This is NOT the same as asking for the number of points 3 units from a point (in this case, point F). Why not? Because the problem defined $m$-distance as the minimum distance traveled along a grid, not the distance in all directions. So if we start tracing all the distances ${m-3}$-units from F, we can start to see the pattern. Once we've mapped out all the possible lines ${m-3}$-units from F in one quadrant of our map, we can expand it outwards to see the shape that emerges. We can see that all the points ${m-3}$-distance from F form a square. Our final answer is B, a square. Think you deserve a treat for all that hard work. The Take Aways Understanding the coordinate plane and how points fit in it are the basic building blocks for coordinate geometry. With these understandings, you will be able to perform more complex coordinate geometry tasks, such as finding slopes and rotating shapes. Coordinate geometry is not an insignificant part of the SAT math section, but luckily success is mostly a matter of organization and diligence. Be careful to keep track of your negatives and all your moving pieces and you'll be able to dominate those point questions and all the coordinate geometry the SAT can throw at you. What's Next? Ready to tackle more SAT math topics? You're in luck! We've got guides for every math topic on the SAT, so come check them out. From probabilities to polygons, fractions to functions- we've got you covered. Running out of time on the SAT math section? Check out our guide on how to beat the clock and maximize your SAT math score. Bitten by the procrastination bug? Our guide will help you overcome all those procrastinating woes and get you back on track in no time. Looking to get a perfect score? We've got your back with our guide to getting an 800 on the SAT math section, written by a perfect-scorer. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points? Check out our best-in-class online SAT prep program. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your SAT score by 160 points or more. Our program is entirely online, and it customizes what you study to your strengths and weaknesses. If you liked this Math strategy guide, you'll love our program. Along with more detailed lessons, you'll get thousands of practice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Check out our 5-day free trial:

Law and Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Law and Society - Essay Example He expounded on several approaches to conflict management and then justifies why his movement has chosen the one he calls, â€Å"direct action†. In this regard, the essay will be used to analyze the conflict management approaches presented by Donald Black. Forms of Conflict Management Discuss and define the 3 approaches: From the lecture notes on Law as Social Control, there are three general approaches to resolving conflict are categorized into unilateral, bilateral and through third party. The unilateral form actually focuses on toleration where it was noted that the victim is perceived to be socially inferior or estranged from the offender. The bilateral form is parallel with applying negotiation techniques where both parties are deemed of equal status and seek some form of agreement or arrangement to settle their conflicts that would be amenable to both. Finally, if despite all resolutions techniques have been exhausted and conflicts remain unresolved, the third-party sett lement form requires seeking a neutral third party (not affiliated to any of the offending nor offended parties) to evaluate the issue and arrive at the most appropriate solution. Description of Circumstances for Application of Conflict Management Forms Using Donald Black’s article, entitled â€Å"Crime as Social Control†, the forms of conflict management are: toleration, negotiation, settlement, law and self-help. Self-help was defined by Black (1983) as â€Å"the expression of a grievance by unilateral aggression such as personal violence or property destruction† (p. 34). Law, on the other hand, was noted as a form of governmental social control (Black, 1983, p. 41). His focus was to present law and self-help as forms of conflict management that functions more as social control mechanisms. Using these forms of conflict management in the case of King, from the circumstances relayed in his letter, he clearly noted the application of a rational four step process in his nonviolent campaign in conflict management, to wit: â€Å"collection of the facts to determine whether injustices exist; negotiation; self-purification; and direct action† (King, 1963, p. 1). But evidently, the form of unilateral form of conflict management was applied when toleration was upheld for the longest time. King averred that â€Å"we have waited for more than 340 years for our constitutional and God given rights† (King, 1963, p. 3). Since he acknowledged that colored people have been discriminated and prejudiced for so long exemplifying the inferior status socially imposed, this form was therefore eventually rejected as effective and applicable. The bilateral form of conflict management had been applied when King noted that negotiations were apparently tried but proven ineffective. As proven, there were negotiations (or supposedly agreed upon settlements) made between the leaders of the Birmingham’s economic community and the Negro citizens in t erms of removing racial signs in merchants’ stores, for instance. Apparently, these leaders and merchants failed to comply with the promise as few signs were briefly removed but return eventually and others were not removed at all (King, 1963, p. 2). Therefore, ordinary negotiations were proven to be ineffective and were arbitrarily rejected by King. Likewise, the direct action through demonstrations were a call for further negotiations possible seeking third party infusion to resolve the conflict by invoking public protests to make others aware that there is a need to bring justice and equality to the oppressed. This option was regarded as the best course of action for reasons identified and justified below. Law intercedes in King’s quest for conflict resolution through admitting that their direct action do no violate any persisting law or

Essay due in Asian Collection at the Metropolitan Museum of Art

Due in Asian Collection at the Metropolitan Museum of Art - Essay Example The Asian collection of Art works at the Metropolitan Museum of Art contains a large number of Art works from Asian countries. It is renowned for its collection of Chinese and Indian Art works displayed. Thesis statement: From the perspective of a viewer, discussion on the basic differences between Chinese and Indian art and analysis of a piece of art to unearth its history, the artist’s motives and expression. The Asian collection at the Metropolitan Museum of Art includes a wide range of Art works from different cultures from Asia. The collection includes gifts from philanthropists who collected different types of Art works from different cultures in Asia. Besides, the collection covers the 4000 year history of Asian Art. Some important differences between the Chinese and Indian art objects which represent the Asian Art are mentioned below. The Chinese collection includes Calligraphy and painting which represent its rich tradition of Art. Carol Michaelson and Jane Portal opine that: â€Å"Chinese painting is quite different from brightly coloured Western oil painting† (Michaelson and Portal 8) the tradition of painting in China is entirely different from Western form of oil painting. Besides, the Art works represent the history of different dynasties that ruled over China for centuries. For instance, the work ‘Model of a watchtower’ represents the Eastern Han dynasty in ancient China. But the Indian collection is different from Chinese works. The difference from Chinese Art can be seen in the usage of colors, medium and theme. The favorite medium of Indian Artists includes paper and cloth. For instance, the work ‘Mahavira Sitting at the Top of the Universe: Folio from a Kalpasutra Manuscript, 15th century’ is in paper. The favorite theme of Indian artists includes stories from sacred te xts. In addition, red is a dominant color in Indian Art works. But the favorite colors